Anthropocentric approaches such as virtue ethics and deontology stress the particular human perspective, and claim that values depend on human beings only. But it seems equally true that this approach presents some difficulties as well. They can also copy other sounds like that of a Dog‘s bark or a Cat‘s meow. Dog sleep positions meaning. and the sixth century C.E. Historically speaking, feminist ethics developed in strong opposition to the traditional male-oriented approaches which genuinely appealed to universal moral rights and principles, such as principlism, deontological approaches and utilitarianism (Gilligan 1982, Gudorf 1994, Lebacqz 1995). In the case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study (Belmont Report 1979), and other experiments in clinical research (Beecher 1966), one has to concede however that they were performed in the full knowledge of both sets of guidelines (and hence against the basic and most important idea of individual informed consent). First is the problem of content: vague virtues are unable to give proper guidance. If individualistically, all “things” in nature are bearers of moral values and are of equal moral worth. The upshot is that one needs a more fundamental theoretical analysis of the particular elements of the Hippocratic Oath in order to determine possible traditional shortcomings in more detail before one accepts them as a fixed set of unquestionable professional rules. In: L. Becker (Ed.). Since, most hospitals in the USA provide clinical ethics consultation that is mainly due to the requirement of The Joint Commission for Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations—in 2007 renamed the Joint Commission—that accredited hospitals must have a method for addressing ethical issues that arise (JCAHO 1992: 106). Aristotelian Social Democracy. But what are the prerequisites for ascribing a being a moral status and hence moral rights and (legal) protection? This new paradigmatic moral shift was supported by the scientific findings of Darwin’s evolutionary theory. Animal ethics and environmental ethics are sub-disciplines which emerged at a later date. This picture is awry. Religious approaches, such as those of the Catholic Church, and non-religious deontological approaches, such as Kantian-oriented theories, are prime examples of applying moral rules. & Minerva, F. (2012). In modern—or rather secular—societies, this line of reasoning cannot be taken as a universal starting point to justify moral norms for religious and non-religious people alike in medical contexts on issues such as abortion, euthanasia, the use of contraceptives, and genetic enhancement. Feminist bioethics can only be fully appreciated if one understands the context in which this increasingly important approach evolved during the late twentieth century (Tong 1993, Wolf 1996, Donchin and Purdy 1999, Rawlinson 2001). A Theory of International Bioethics: The Negotiable and Non-Negotiable. window.mc4wp = window.mc4wp || { For example, the virtuous physician in medical ethics should not only be a well trained and conscientious professional—one who shows compassion towards his or her patients, is helpful and honest, and keeps his or her promises—but also should be strongly inclined to promote the patient’s well-being even at his or her own expense (Pellegrino 1989). And, furthermore, what about non-sentient nature, such as tropical rainforests, the Grand Canyon, mammoth trees, and beautiful landscapes? This line of reasoning is anthropocentric and is faced with the objection of speciesism (§3d). At second glance, however, it seems reasonable to make this distinction because human beings are the only beings who are able to reason about the consequences of their actions which may influence the whole of nature or parts of nature in a positive or negative way. The three most important objections are: first, the lack of ethical guidance because there is no master principle in cases of conflict among the principles (Gert et al. According to deep ecologists, human beings should view themselves as being a part of and not distinct from the natural world by virtue of a refined notion of the self. Singer argues for a utilitarian animal ethics based on the equal consideration of interests of sentient beings in combination with the criterion of the ability to feel pain. The oldest sub-discipline of bioethics is medical ethics which can be traced back to the introduction of the Hippocratic Oath (500 B.C.E.). Dogs Playing for Life has helped nearly 300 shelters nationwide, introducing playgroups as an effective and efficient quality of life strategy. Unfortunately, shelter dogs are often mislabeled as aggressive and may never get the chance to show their true personalities under more normal circumstances. Love’s Labor in the Health Care System: Working Toward Gender Equity. Are they morally significant at least to some degree? Moral judgements, according to utilitarians, should always be impartial and universal. Such approaches in bioethics are less concerned with public welfare than other vital aspects, such as: (1) debunking the traditional religious views on the sacredness of human beings, the prohibition of abortion, infanticide, and euthanasia; (2) stressing the importance of non-rational sentient animals (animal ethics) and the preservation of nature (environmental ethics) against anthropocentric approaches such as Kantianism and religious approaches; (3) arguing against the use of human rights and human dignity in bioethical discourses; (4) maximizing the patient’s well-being or best interests in medicine. Supporters of pathocentrism argue that all sentient beings deserve moral consideration and protection, equally/egalitarian or non-equally/non-egalitarian with reference to human beings (see Singer 1975, Regan 1983, Wolf 1996). At second glance, however, moral judgements might not only depend on pure reason alone but are influenced by different cultures, religions, and traditions that would substantiate the claim of different outcomes and justifications. According to Beauchamp and Childress: The common morality is the set of norms shared by all persons committed to morality. Therefore, it must also defend itself against some of the above-mentioned objections that are not peculiar to feminist bioethics. Korsgaard, C. (2004). The competence of the physician was too overwhelming for most people so that they almost always complied with the physician’s advice. } Deontological approaches such as provided by Kant (1785) and Ross (1930) are commonly characterized by applying usually strict moral rules or norms to concrete cases. These norms—unlike the abstract and content-thin principles of the common morality—are concrete and rich in substance. Brody (Eds.). In addition, one might raise the issue of reaching an agreement about what to do in practice against the background of competing moral theories. Whether the casuists’ solution always leads to an open-and-shut case appears questionable and depends largely on the paradigm cases and analogies that are used to determine and evaluate the case in question as well as the skills of the particular casuist (in finding proper paradigm cases and analogies, and so on.). A Virtue Ethics Approach. It is a matter of debate (see for example, Kihlbom 2000, Holland 2011), whether the strengths of virtue ethical approaches are limited to single cases (individual level) or whether they are also equally good candidates in cases of developing biomedical procedures for regulatory policy (societal level). Westra, A.E. Bio-Ethik. The virtuous agent in bioethics knows how to deal with complex cases, shows a greater sensitivity than proponents of deontological and utilitarian approaches, and acts virtuously not only by complying with moral norms but also “going the extra mile” to perform supererogatory actions. The common morality is not merely a morality, in contrast to other moralities. (2000). The dog's height predicted a number of aspects of the dog's behavioral tendencies. Hamel & L.J. Generally speaking, environmental ethics deals with the moral dimension of the relationship between human beings and non-human nature−animals and plants, local populations, natural resources and ecosystems,  landscapes, as well as the biosphere and the cosmos. According to Singer, one should not be allowed to kill a human being or sentient animal if one can detect in that being rationality and self-consciousness—the core elements of personhood according to Singer. Subscribe today. In this respect, the notion of intrinsic worth is fleshed out by the idea of uniqueness and beauty and hence one avoids (to some degree) anthropocentrism and the objection of speciesism. Arras, J.D. In the late 20th century, this has changed by virtue of acknowledging the patient’s right to be told the truth about his or her health condition. Schüklenk, U. Accreditation Manual For Hospitals. Joint Commission for Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (1992). Even though they are “distinct” branches in focusing on different areas—namely, human beings, animals, and nature—they have a significant overlap of particular issues, vital conceptions and theories as well as prominent lines of argumentation. Bioethics as a Discipline. However, a brief overview of the bioethical sub-disciplines is as follows. It also contains some binding ethical rules of utmost importance such as the well known principle of non-maleficence (“primum non nocere”) and the principle of beneficence (“salus aegroti suprema lex”); furthermore, doctor-patient confidentiality and the prohibition on exploiting the patient (including sexual exploitation) are important rules that are still valid. In the non-Western context, the idea of respect for and valuing nature is more prevalent and at least 2500 years old, referring to the general teachings of Hinduism and Buddhism which influenced the Western view in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (for example, Schopenhauer). All non-anthropocentric approaches share the common claim that there are “objective” or more straightforward naturalistic values which are non-relational (intrinsic) and do not presuppose rational human beings. That means an action that is morally right (for instance, to help the needy) but performed according to the wrong motive (such as to gain honour and reputation) is not morally good. Did you know the dog sleeping position your pup chooses can influence how well your dog sleeps? Feminist bioethics is by nature particularistic and in this respect it is similar to many virtue ethical approaches and casuistry. Roughly speaking, in Antiquity only men of a particular social status were part of the moral community; several hundred years later, after a long and hard social struggle women achieved equal status with men−even though there is still a long way to go in many parts of most societies (for example, in the job market and equal pay for equal work). This institute was created in 1971 as the Joseph and Rose Kennedy Center for the Study of Human Reproduction and Bioethics, and is now known as the Kennedy Institute of Ethics (see, also the Institute of Society, Ethics, and the Life Sciences, 1969). Anthropocentrism is faced with the objection of speciesism, the view that the mere affiliation to the species of Homo sapiens is sufficient to grant a higher moral status to human beings in comparison with animals. Singer (1975) additionally claims that human beings must consider the equal interests of human beings and animals alike. Learn more. After a long time of no importance or influence in moral philosophy, it gained a significant importance in bioethics—mostly in clinical ethics—after the vital publications of Jonsen and Toulmin (1988), Strong (1988), and Brody (1988). If that is correct, then this would solve the issue of moral relativism. 1990); secondly, the problem of bias concerning the universal principles in cross-cultural contexts (Takala 2001, Westra et al. Rapid developments in the natural sciences and technology (including biotechnology) have greatly facilitated better living conditions and increased the standard of living of people worldwide. The apparent differences between men and women have often led cultures to treat them in radically different ways, ways that often disadvantage women. Secondly, new approaches of ethical reasoning and decision making were developed, such as Beauchamp and Childress’s four-principle approach in bioethics and feminist bioethics. In: H. Kuhse & P. Singer (Eds). Furthermore, the idea that “the physician knows best” and should be able to act against the will of the patient for the benefit of the patient (that is, the patriarchal model of the physician-patient relationship) also originated in ancient times. However, Nussbaum (1988) argues persuasively, by appealing to Aristotle, that ethical virtues are non-relative by nature and allow for variations. On the other hand, it can be doubted whether feminist bioethics—all things considered—can be seen as a well-equipped and full moral theory. Values are relational and require a rational being, hence animals and non-human nature are not per se objects of morality, unless indirectly, by virtue of a surrogate decision maker. They were the first two (academic) institutions to conduct research in medical ethics and to publish high quality academic journals: the Hastings Center Report and the Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal. But, even in this case, Jansen claims that the right action should prevail over the right motive. The general idea to always maximize the patient’s well-being according to a rather simplistic idea of calculating and comparing the pleasures and pains of all affected persons seems questionable to many people since they do not think that the outcome of these calculations necessarily leads to morally right or wrong actions. Since the particular moralities are different, people sometimes specify and balance the principles differently, and hence principlists often claim “that there can be different and equally good solutions to moral problems” (Gordon et al. Armstrong & R.G. The combination of both aspects is, in general, a difficult task for feminist ethics since, on the one hand, the proponents must avoid the common trap of speaking in traditional dualistic ways of care versus justice, particularity versus universality, and emotion versus reason and, on the other hand, they must carve out the specific differences of the feminist perspective (Haker 2003).
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